Not all people who raise animals, though, are animal husbandmen. Raising of animals for fancy or as pets does not fall within the purview of the above definition. However, when these animals are raised for profit or business, then raising them falls under animal husbandry.
An aficionado of cockfighting, who raises cocks for betting purposes only, is not an animal husbandman. In this case he does not mind the cost of production. But, if another man breeds and produces these game cocks for sale to aficionados of this sport, he falls within the province of animal husbandry.
Animal Husbandry as an Art. Art refers to the systematic application of knowledge or skill in affecting a desired result. Animal husbandry is an art because it deals with the skillful application of the principles or knowledge of breeding, feeding, and management, so that the desired results may be produced.
An animal husbandman may have for his objective the maintenance or improvement of present health, production, and performance of his animals. Or, he may have the far-sighted objective of producing a preconceived ideal of beauty or of performance. The early animal husbandmen concentrated their energies towards the production of animals that should possess beautiful body conformation and distinct color patterns. As a result of their efforts, we now have the different breeds of animals with distinct but more or less uniform body type and color. Physically these animals are ideals of beauty. Later, the breeders of animals, not satisfied merely with the improved type of animals, turned their attention to the improvement of performance, which is, what the animals can do or produce, depending upon the purpose for which the animals are being raised. As a result of this work, we now have flocks that lay 250 eggs or more a year per bird; cows that give 10-15 gallons of milk a day per animal; pigs that can be finished for meat at 7-8 months of age with around 70 kilos liveweight. These performances, which are very much better than those 10 to 15 years ago, have been the result of several generations of skillful and systematic breeding work.
Animal Husbandry as a Science. Science is a branch of study dealing with facts or principles systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws or general truths. Animal husbandry is a science because it deals with facts, principles, and natural laws underlying animal life. It embraces the study of anatomy, physiology, genetics, feeds and feeding, embryology, veterinary medicine, etc.
Animal Husbandry as an Industry. An animal husbandman may engage himself either in General Animal Husbandry or in Specific Animal Husbandry. General animal husbandry is a diversified animal farming in which the farmer produces a variety of animals, and a considerable number of these are for sale. Example: raising of poultry, cattle, goats and hogs on one’s farm, the majority of which are for sale. Specific animal husbandry is the raising of specific kind of animal for a specific purpose. Example: raising chickens for egg production; raising pigs for pork production; raising sheep for wool, etc.
As an industry, both of these types of animal husbandry are full of promise. Animal raising becomes easily profitable if the people engaged in it do not only have the knowledge and skill of feeding and management, but also have keen business acumen.
Chapter 1: The Animal Body
Unit 1: Organs and systems of the body
Unit 2: Body temperature
The body is made up of many, many millions of cells which you can not see unless you use a microscope. Special cells come together to make an organ.
An organ is a complex structure within the body. It has a special job or jobs to do.
A body system consists of a number of organs which work together to carry out a special job.
The animal body is made of ten (10) systems:
1. Musculo-skeletal system
2. Integumentary system
3. Digestive system
4. Endocrine system
5. Circulatory system
6. Respiratory system
7. Urinary system
8. Nervous system
9. Sensory system
10. Reproductive system
11. Lympho-reticular system
The organs of the body
An organ is a complex structure with a special job or a number of jobs to do. For example:
1. The eye is the organ of sight.
2. The kidneys are organs which get rid of water and poisonous materials from the body as urine.
3. The liver has many jobs and is involved in more than one system.
Various organs are grouped together to form a body system which carries out a special job.
System of the Body Organs in the Body Job or function
Musculo-skeletal -------------muscle (meat) bones -----------------Support and move the body
Digestive ---------------------stomach, liver, intestine, pancreas ----Digest and absorb feed
Endocrine -------------------ductless glands -----------------------Controlling system of the body
Circulatory ------------------heart, blood vessels -----------The brood carries substances around the body
Respiratory -----------------muzzle, windpipe, lungs ----------------Breathing
Urinary ---------------------kidneys, bladder -------------------Get rid of poisons and waste (urine)
Integumentary -----------------skin -------------------------------Protects the body tissues
Nervous ---------------brain, nerves spinal cord --------Pass messages around the body, control the body
Sensory ---------------eyes, ears, nose skin --------------------Sense and detect things outside the body
Reproductive ------testes, penis ovaries, uterus, vagina, vulva, udder --------To produce and feed young
Lympho-reticular ---------lymph nodes, spleen -----------Protect against infectious diseases, produce blood
The Musculo-Skeletal System
This system consists of the bones and the muscles (meat).The bones form the skeleton which is the framework within the body. It carries weight and supports the body. Other functions are for protection, movement, blood cell formation and storage.
Osteology is the name of the study of skeletal system while myology is for muscular system.
Skeletal system is divided into axial and appendicular skeleton:
a. Axial skeleton – this consists the skull (comprises the bones of the cranium), and trunk (comprises the vertebral column and bony thorax).
- vertebral column has five (5) groups:
1. Cervical – corresponds to the neck
2. Thoracic – corresponds to the back
3. Lumbar – corresponds to the croup
4. Sacral – corresponds to the pelvis
5. Coccygeal – corresponds to the tail
- bony thorax (comprises the ribs and sternum):
1. Ribs – corresponds to the number of thoracic
2. Sternum – floor of the thorax ands lower ends of the ribs
b. Appendicular skeleton – this consists the forelimb and hind limb.
- forelimb (from above downward the bones of the thoracic limb)
1. Scapula – corresponds to the shoulder
2. Humerus – corresponds to the arm
3. Radius and ulna – corresponds to the forearm
4. Carpus – corresponds to the knee
5. Metacarpus – corresponds to the front cannon
6. Phalanges (first, second, third) – corresponds to the foot
- hind limb (from above downward the bones of the hind or pelvic limb)
1. Os coxae – corresponds to the hip
2. Femur – corresponds to the thigh
3. Patella – corresponds to the knee cap
4. Tibia and fibula – corresponds to the legs
5. Tarsus – corresponds to the hock
6. Metatarsus – corresponds to the hind cannon
7. Phalanges – corresponds to the foot (same in forelimb)
Classification of bones according to gross appearance:
a. Long bones – greater in one dimension than any other such as the femur.
b. Short bones – somewhat cuboid or approximately equal in all dimensions such as the tarsal and carpals.
c. Flat bones – relatively thin and expanded in two dimensions such as the skull.
d. Irregular bones – bones that do not fall into one of the preceding categories such as the vertebrae.
e. Sesamoid bones – resemble a sesame seed and are developed along the course of tendons to reduce friction or change the course of tendons, e.g. patella, largest sesame bone in the body.
f. Pneumatic bones – contain air-spaces or sinuses that communicate with the exterior, e.g. frontal and maxillary bones.
Bones are connected together so they can move. The places where this happens are called joints. The bones are held together at the joints by elastic strands called ligaments. Between the bones is a softer material called cartilage (gristle) which cushions the bones at the joints when the body moves. Bones are very hard and contain minerals. Each bone has a name such as the scapula (shoulder blade) and skull (head). There are about 200 bones in the body.
Arthrology is the name of the study of joints or articulations. The main functions of joints are to hold bones together and allow the rigid skeleton some flexibility so that the gross body movements can occur.
Joints are classified by structure and functions:
a. Structurally
1. Fibrous joints – no joint cavity and the bones are united by fibrous tissue.
2. Cartilaginous joints – no joint cavity and the bones are united by cartilage.
3. Synovial joints – contain articular surfaces, articular cartilages, articular cavity, joint capsule and ligaments.
b. Functionally
1. Synarthroses – immovable joints
2. Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints
3. Diarthroses – freely movable joints
Movements of joints:
a. Flexion – decrease the angle of the joint
b. Extension – increase the angle of the joint
c. Abduction – movement of limb away from the median plane
d. Adduction – movement of limb toward the median plane
e. Rotation – movement of bone around its longitudinal axis, e.g. turning the head from side to side as in indicating “no”.
f. Circumduction – combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction, e.g. horse that paddles
g. Hyperextension – movement in which the angle between segments is increased beyond 180° or straight line.
Muscles are joined at both ends to the bones. The muscles are the meat of the body and when they contract (shorten) or relax (lengthen) they make the bones move. Other functions are for producing movement, maintaining posture, stabilizing joints and generating heat.
If you bend your arm you can see and feel the muscles in your arm working.
Types of muscle:
a. Skeletal muscle – attached to bones or for some facial muscle to skin
- single, very long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells with very obvious striations
- voluntary contractions
- speed of contractions, slow to fast
- no rhythmic contractions
- also called somatic muscle
b. Cardiac muscle – walls of the heart
- branching chain of cells, uninucleate, striations
- involuntary contractions
- speed of contractions, slow
- there is a rhythmic contraction
c. Smooth muscle – mostly in walls of hollow visceral organs like stomach, intestines, excretory organs, reproductive organs, lungs, blood vessels, etc.
- single, fusiform, uninucleate, no striations
- involuntary contractions
- speed of contraction, very slow
- there is a rhythmic contraction
- also called plain muscle
Integumentary System
The skin is often considered an organ system.
Dermatology is the name of the study of integumentary system.
The skin has several functions, most (but not all) concerned with protection. It insulates and cushions the underlying body tissues and protects the entire body from mechanical damage (bumps and cuts), chemical damage (acids, alkalis, and the like), thermal damage (heat), and bacterial invasion. The hardened uppermost layer of the skin prevents water loss from the body surface. Other skin functions include:
1. Acting as a mini-excretory system – urea, salts, and water are lost when we swear
2. Performing important metabolic duties such as producing proteins important to our community
3. Acting as the site of vitamin D synthesis for the body
4. Containing the cutaneous sense organs (part of the nervous system that is in the dermis) that allow us to sense and enjoy the external environment
5. Playing an important role in regulating heat loss from the body surface (a function of its abundant capillary network under the control of the nervous system)
Basic structure of the skin
1. Epidermis (superficial). Composed of epithelium.
- layers of the epidermis (from deep to superficial)
a. Stratum basale (basal layer) – a single row of cells that abuts the dermis. Its cells constantly undergo cell division to produce millions of new cells daily.
b. Stratum spinosum (spiny layer) – is immediately superficial to the basal layer. The stratum spinosum cells appear spiky because, as skin is prepared for histological examination, its cells shrink but their desmosomes hold tight.
c. Stratum granulosum (granular layer) – named for the abundant granules its cell contain. Some of these granules contain a waterproofing glycolipid that is secreted into the extracellular space.
d. Stratum lucidum (clear layer) – is a thin translucent band of flattened dead keratinocytes. It is not present in thin skin.
e. Stratum corneum (horny layer) – the outermost epidermal layer, is some 20 to 30 cell layers thick, and accounts for most of the epidermal thickness.
2. Dermis (underlying connective tissues)
- two principal regions:
a. Papillary layer – is very uneven and has fingerlike projections from its superior surface called dermal papillae, which attach it to the epidermis. The pain and touch receptors (Meissner’s corpuscles) are also found here.
b. Reticular layer – is the deepest skin layer. It contains blood vessels, sweat and sebaceous glands and pressure receptors.
Appendages of the skin – hair, nails, and cutaneous glands – all derive from the epidermis, but they reside in the dermis.
Cutaneous glands
- two categories:
a. Sebaceous (oil) glands – are found nearly all over the skin, except for the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.
- the product of the sebaceous glands called sebum is a mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells that acts as a natural skin cream or lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist.
b. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
- two types of sweat glands:
1. Eccrine glands, which are distributed all over the body, produce clear perspirations, consisting primarily of water, salts (NaCl), and urea.
2. Apocrine glands, found chiefly in the axillary and genital areas, secrete a milky protein – and fat – rich substance (also containing water, salts, and urea) that is an excellent source of nutrients for the bacteria typically found on the skin.
Nervous System and Sensory System
The bones of the skull and backbone protect the soft brain and spinal cord. Fibers called nerves pass from the brain and spinal cord to all parts of the body.
Neurology is the name of the study of nervous system while esthesiology is for sensory system.
Neurons or nerve cells are the basic unit of the nervous system. It is a specialized impulse conduction or relay message from effector organs to the nervous system and vice versa.
Messages pass from the various parts of the body along the nerves to the brain. The brain sends a message back telling the different parts of the body what to do. The brain controls the body.
The brain also controls the senses, the sense organs are:
1. the eyes for sight
2. the ears for hearing
3. the nose for smell
4. the tongue for taste
5. the skin for touch
Nervous system is divided into central nervous system and peripheral nervous system:
a. Central nervous system (CNS) – interprets incoming information and issue instructions based on past experience and current conditions.
- consists of brain (chief organ of nervous system) and spinal cord (conductor of impulses from the brain to the other parts of the body and vice-versa or reflex center).
b. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – communication lines.
- consists of cranial nerves (supply the motor and sensory nerves to the head principally), spinal nerves (arise from the spinal cord by means of ventral and dorsal), and autonomic nervous system or ANS (regulate events that are automatic or involuntary).
- ANS consists:
1. Sympathetic nervous system – fight or flight system. It is evident when the animals are excited or find their self in emergency or threatening situation.
2. Parasympathetic nervous system – resting and digesting system. It promoting normal digestion and elimination of feces and urine and conserving body energy.
Classification of neurons according to the direction:
a. Afferent (sensory) neurons – impulses from effector organ to the spinal cord or brain.
b. Efferent (motor) neurons – impulses away from the brain or spinal cord to or towards muscles or glands (effector organs could either be skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle)
c. Inter-neurons (association) – impulses from afferent to efferent within CNS.
Neurons consists of cell body (metabolic center), dendrites (conduct impulses toward the cell body), and axons (conduct impulse away from the cell body).
Sensory receptors are transducers that convert various forms of energy in the environment (external and internal) into action potential. It associated with non-neural cells. It forms of energy converted by the sensory receptors like mechanical (touch-pressure), thermal (degrees of warmth), electromagnetic (light), and chemical (odor, taste and oxygen content of the blood).
Reflex arc is process of muscles of the hand which cause the finger to be removed from the heat. It travels 40 meters per second.
Nerve fibers are threadlike extensions (axons and dendrites) from cell body.
Receptors are distal end of dendrites of sensory neurons.
Synapse is the gap between one neuron to another neuron (about 200° A).
Acetylcholine is the chemical mediator or neurotransmitter which crosses the synaptic cleft and brings the signal.
Adequate stimulus is a particular form of energy to which receptor is most sensitive or which is able to evoke an action potential.
Sensory modalities consist of sense organs of the body. It includes the senses of smell, vision, hearing, hearing, rotational and linear acceleration, taste and cutaneous senses.
- modalities of tastes are sweet, salt, sour and bitter. It is perceived by taste buds in the tongue.
- sounds are heard because of hair cells in the organ of corti.
Endocrine System
Endocrine system secretes chemical mediators called hormone. Hormone regulates growth and development, metabolisms, reproduction, stress responses, body tissue fluid and electrolyte balance.
Hormones are classified as proteins, peptide, steroids and amine.
Endocrinology is the name of the study of endocrine system.
Functions and characteristics of hormones:
1. appear to regulate rather than initiate reactions
2. effective in biocatalytic amounts
3. not secreted in uniform rates
4. inactivated rapidly either at the site where it exerts its effect
5. transported through the circulatory system or bloodstream
Pituitary glands (hypophysis) – located at the base of the brain in concavity of the sphenoid bone called sella turcica.
- size of grapes
- has two lobes the anterior (glandular tissue) and posterior (nervous tissue)
a. Anterior pituitary hormones (Adenohypophysis)
1. Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropic hormones (STH) – to stimulate the skeletal muscle and long bones of the body.
- dwarfism, hyposecretion of GH
- gigantism, hypersecretion of GH before adulthood
- acromegaly, hypersecretion of GH after adulthood
2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – to stimulate the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids.
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – to stimulate the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone.
4. Prolactin or luteotropic hormone (LTH) – to stimulate milk secretion.
5. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – to stimulate the ovary to produce Graafian follicle (GF). In males, it maintains the integrity of seminiferous tubules of the testis.
6. Luteinizing hormone (LH) – to stimulate ovulation and formation of corpus luteum (CL). In males, it will stimulate the leydig cells or interstitial cells to produce testosterone.
- sterility, hyposecretion of FSH and LH
b. Posterior pituitary hormones (Neurohypophysis)
1. Oxytocin – to stimulate milk ejection.
2. Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – for conserving body water by reducing urine formation.
- diabetes insipidus, hyposecretion of ADH
Thyroid gland – located at the neck area just below the larynx. It has a central mass or isthmus. It is composed of hollow structure called follicles.
- thyroid hormone includes:
T4 or thyroxine and T3 or triiodothyronine. It maintains the level of metabolism in the tissue and growth and development especially in reproductive and nervous system.
- goiters, deficient in iodine
- cretinisms, hyposecretion of T4 for young
- myxedema, hyposecretion of T4 for adult
- graves disease or exophthalmus, hypersecretion of T4
Pancreatic islets or pancreas – located at the duodenal lope of the small intestine. It is formerly called islets of langerhans.
- hormones includes:
a. Insulin – decreases the blood sugar levels.
- beta cells
- hypoglycemic
- diabetes mellitus, insulin deficiency
b. Glucagons – increases the blood glucose level
- alpha cells
- hyperglycemic
Glucose homeostasis
Low level blood glucose ---Islet of langerhans (alpha cells) --- Glucagons ---Liver (glycogen) ---Glucose
High level blood glucose ---Islet of langerhans (beta cells) ---Insulin ----Glucose uptake; liver and other cells
Adrenal glands – located at the top of the kidneys
- has two portions the adrenal medulla (neural tissue) and adrenal cortex (glandular tissue)
a. Adrenal medulla
- hormone:
1. Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine (catecholamine) – increased heart rate, blood pressure and blood glucose levels.
- emergency hormone
b. Adrenal cortex
- Addison’s disease, hyposecretion of adrenal cortex
- hormones:
1. Mineralocorticoids or aldosterone – outermost layer. It regulates the mineral (salt) content of the blood.
- hyperaldosteronisms, hyperactivity of the outermost cortical area
2. Glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone) – middle layer. It stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
- hyperglycemic
- Cushing’s syndrome, hypersecretion of middle cortical area
3. Sex hormones – innermost layer. For androgens and estrogens.
- masculinization, hypersecretion of the sex hormones
Types of cell making up the three zones of adrenal cortex:
a. Zona glomerulosa - aldosterone
b. Zona fasciculata – glucocorticoids
c. Zona reticularis – glucocorticoids
Parathyroid glands – located at the surface of the thyroid gland
- hormones are parathormone (PTH) and calcitonin
a. PTH – increase blood levels of calcium
- hypercalcemic
b. Calcitonin or thyrocalcitonin – decrease blood calcium level
- made by C cells (parafollicular cells)
- hypocalcemic
Types of cells in parathyroid glands:
a. Osteoblast – stimulates bone formation
b. Osteoclast – bone resorption
c. Osteocyte – bone resorption
Calcium homeostasis
Low level blood calcium --- Parathyroid gland --- Parathormone --- (bone, release stored calcium and kidney, reabsorbs calcium)
High level blood calcium --- Thyroid gland ---- Calcitonin --- (deposition of calcium in the bone and inhibit calcium reinsertion at kidney)
Pineal gland – small cone shaped gland found in the roof of the 3rd ventricle of the brain.
- hormone found is melatonin
a. Melatonin – sleep trigger establishing the body day night cycle
- mating behavior and rhythms
Thymus gland – found at the upper part of the thorax, posterior to the sternum
- hormone found is thymosin
a. Thymosin – acts as an incubator for the maturation of a special group of white blood cells (WBC) or T lymphocytes that are important in the immune response.
Prostaglandin – placental hormone
- effects:
1. decreasing blood pressure and increasing heart rate
2. inducing labor and menstruation in women
3. increasing renal blood flow
4. decreasing volume and acidity of fluid in the stomach
5. regulating platelet aggregation to prevent clotting
Other hormones or hormone-like substances
a. Secretin – found in duodenum. It stimulates the flow of pancreatic NaHCO3 solution.
b. Pancreozymin (cholecystokinin) – increases enzymes in pancreatic secretion and stimulates contraction of the gallbladder.
c. Gastrin – found in stomach. It stimulates the secretion of HCl, pepsinogen and intrinsic factor.
The Cardiovascular System
The organs of the circulatory system are the heart, blood, and the blood vessels (tubes). The heart is found in the chest cavity. It is a muscular pump which sends blood around the body. Functions of cardiovascular system are:
1. convey nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to the tissues
2. carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs
3. remove waste products of metabolisms and take them to the excretory organs for disposal
4. transport hormones from one part of the body to another
5. help maintaining the water equilibrium of the body
6. assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body
7. regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in the body
8. assist in overcoming diseases by the antibodies contained in the blood
Angiology is the name of the study of circulatory system.
Heart is enclosed by a double sac of serous membranes called pericardium. It has 4 chambers (2 atria) and (2 ventricles).
- interventricular or interatrial septum, septum that divides the heart
- double pump:
1. Right side – pulmonary circuit pump
2. Left side – systemic circuit pump
- atrioventricular valve or AV valve, prevents the backflow of blood into the atria when ventricles contract. These are:
1. Bicuspid/mitral valve – left AV valve
2. Tricuspid valve – right AV valve
- semilunar valve, the second set of valves. These are:
1. Pulmonary valve
2. Aortic valve
- types of controlling system act to regulate heart activity:
1. ANS – act like brakes and accelerates increase and decrease the heart rate.
2. Intrinsic conduction system or nodal system. It has 4 components:
a. SA node – located in the RA. It is the pacemaker of the heart. It will increase the rate of depolarization.
b. AV node – junction of atria and ventricles.
c. AV bundles (bundle of his) – located in interventricular septum.
d. Purkinje fiber – spread within the muscle of the ventricle walls
- tachycardia, rapid heart rate.
- bradycardia, slower heart rate
- diastole, heart relaxation
- systole, heart contraction
- cardiac cycle, events of one complete heartbeat. It has 3 periods:
1. Mid-to-late diastole – complete relaxation; atria contracts; AV valves open and semilunar valve closed.
2. Ventricular systole – atria relax; AV valve close and semilunar valve open
3. Early diastole – ventricles relax; semilunar valve snap shut and ventricles are completely closed chambers.
Heart produces 2 sounds the lub sound (1st sound), produces when the AV valve closes and the longer and louder sound; and dup/dub sound (2nd sound), produces when the semilunar valve closes and the short and sharp sound.
Pulse is the alternating expansion and recoil artery that occur the beat of the LV and creates a pressure wave. Pulse rate per minute in different classes of animals are as follows:
a. Cattle: 60-70
b. Sheep: 70-80
c. Goats: 70-80
d. Swine: 60-80
e. Horse: 32-44
f. Chicken: 200-400
- pulse maybe taken by feeling the artery on the following animals:
1. Horse: external maxillary or at the middle of the lower jaw
2. Cattle: coccygeal artery at the base of the tail
3. Sheep and goat: femoral artery
4. Pigs: auscultation method using stethoscope at the cardiac or chest region
The blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called arteries, which carry the oxygenated blood. Blood returns to the heart in veins, which carry the deoxygenated blood. Joining the arteries and veins is a fine network of small tubes called capillaries, exchanges between the tissue cells and blood. The capillaries pass through every part of the body. Pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood from the RV to the lungs. Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the LA of the heart. Aorta or aortic artery carries blood from the LV to the different systemic circulation.
When the heart beats its muscles contract and sends blood out through the arteries. When the heart relaxes blood flows into it from the veins.
Every time the heart beats it sends a pulse along the arteries. You can feel it at certain points on the body. By feeling the pulse we can count the rate at which the heart beats. You can feel your pulse on your wrist.
Blood circulation
Venous blood -------- vena cava (superior or inferior) -------- RA -------- RV --------- PA --------- lungs -------- LA --------LV --------- aorta --------- artery --------- arterioles ---------- capillaries (smallest arterioles) --------- body cells --------- venules --------- veins ---------- vena cava.
- systemic circulation includes the special systems of blood circulation:
a. Coronary circulation – supplies blood to the heart
b. Hepatic circulation – supplies arterial blood to the liver
c. Cerebral circulation – supplies arterial blood to the brain
d. Renal circulation – supplies arterial blood to the kidney
e. Splanchnic circulation – supplies arterial blood to the digestive tract
Heart
Blood is the thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of electrolytes and non-electrolytes. It is a fluid tissue and has a metallic taste.
- 2 categories:
1. Blood plasma – the fluid portion of the blood containing a number of ions, inorganic molecules and organic molecules which are in transit to various parts of the body. Normal volume is 3-5 % BW.
- constituents:
a. water
b. gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen)
c. protein (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen)
d. glucose
e. lipids (fats, lecithin, cholesterol)
f. NPN (amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine ammonia, salts)
g. inorganic salts
h. minerals (Cl, bicarbonates, sulfates, sodium phosphate, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn)
i. enzymes
j. hormone
k. vitamins
l. immune substances
2. Blood cells – made up of white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets.
- haemocytometer, determine the number of cells in the blood.
a. WBC – also known as leukocytes. Has a defense against disease. It includes 2 major groups:
• Granulocytes – granule containing WBC. It contains neutrophils (phagocytes at sites of acute infection), eosinophil (increases in number during allergies and parasite infection), and basophils (contain chemical called histamine, vasodilator that helps to mediate the inflammatory response).
• Agranulocytes – lack of cytoplasmic granules. It has a spherical, oval or kidney shaped. It contains lymphocytes that warriors the immune system (B lymphocytes, has antibodies and T lymphocytes that graft rejection, tumors and viruses); and monocytes, has active phagocytes that increases in number during chronic infections such as TB.
b. RBC – also known as erythrocytes. Have a biconcave disks, anucleate, transport oxygen and small amount of carbon dioxide, and sac of hemoglobin (iron containing proteins and transport oxygen).
c. Platelets – also known as thrombocytes. Have fragments of bizarre multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes. It is needed for the clotting process that occurs in plasma when blood vessels are rupture.
Blood coagulation
Vitamin K
Liver --------------------------------------------------- Prothrombin
Factor VII and X
Ca
Prothrombin ---------------------------------------- Thrombin
Activated platelets
(Thromboplastin)
Thrombin
Fibrinogen ------------------------------------------- Fibrin (clot)
Lympho-Reticular System
Lymph is a colorless fluid which passes out of the blood into a network of fine tubes called the lymphatic system. It passes through the lymph nodes, where germs are filtered out and killed, before it is returned to the veins. The lymph nodes and spleen also produce special blood cells which protect the body against disease. Sometimes when an animal is infected the lymph nodes become swollen and can be felt beneath the skin.
Animal body is made up of 60-70% water. It is distributed into intracellular fluid or ICF (40-50 % BW) and extracellular fluid or ECF (20 % BW).
ECF has 2 components:
1. Interstitial fluid – consists of cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, and lymph. It has 15 % fluid in BW.
2. Blood plasma – has 5 % fluid in BW.
Lymph vessels drain either thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct. The lymph from the right side of the head and neck, right forelegs, and right side of the thorax drain to the right lymphatic duct, that from the rest of the body to the thoracic duct. Lymph vessel is sluggish and in one direction only, from the tissue toward the heart.
Flow of lymph
- factors concerned in lymph flow:
a. difference in pressure at the two ends of the lymph system
b. massaging effect of muscular movements
c. presence in the lymph vessels of valves, which permit flow in only one direction that is toward the heart
Composition of lymph
- derives from the intestines during fat absorption has a milky appearance because of the fat that is contains and is known as chyle.
- has a specific gravity of about 1.015.
- lymphocytes are present
- it contains:
a. water
b. glucose
c. gases
d. proteins
e. NPN
f. Inorganic substances
g. Hormones
h. Coenzymes
i. Vitamins
j. Immune substances
Inter-relationship between the circulatory and the lymphatic system
All body tissues are supplied with blood capillaries as well as lymph capillaries. The blood capillaries absorb substances produced by the cells and other nutrients, and metabolites present in the interstitial fluid which require the circulatory system for their distributions to other parts of the body. However, there are substances which cannot readily enter the walls of the blood capillaries because of the size of their molecules, such as protein molecules of certain hormones and enzymes. These protein molecules can still join the circulatory system by way of the lymphatic system. Since the lymph capillaries have more permeable wall than the blood capillaries, all metabolites of big molecular size which cannot be absorbed by the blood capillaries will be absorbed by the lymph capillaries. Eventually, the lymph fluid will enter the circulatory system through the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
The Respiratory System
Respiration (breathing) consists of inspiration (breathing in) and expiration (breathing out). Main functions of respiratory system are to provide oxygen to the cells of the body and remove excess carbon dioxide.
Splanchnology is the name of the study of respiratory system.
There are two lungs which are found in the chest protected by the bony cage of the ribs. The windpipe (trachea) carries air from the nostrils to the lungs which are spongy because of air spaces in them. As the animal breathes, air moves in and out of the lungs. Inside the lungs oxygen needed by the body passes into the blood in the walls of the lungs and water and carbon dioxide pass out of the blood into the air which is then breathed out.
Distinct events of respiratory system:
a. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) – air must move into and out of the lungs.
b. External respiration – gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli.
c. Respiratory gas transport – oxygen and carbon dioxide transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via the bloodstream.
d. Internal respiration – gas exchange between blood and tissue cells
Nasal cavity – consists of 2 nasal tubes (sometimes third tube, the mouth).
- right and left bronchi
- 20-23 subdivisions
- millions terminal tube
- alveoli or alveolar sac, gas exchange occurs. It has 300 million in the 2 lungs and the diameter is 75-300 microns.
Lungs – 2 elastic membranous sacs with an area of 70 square meters in man and about 40 times the surface area of the body.
Thoracic cavity – contains the lungs and mediastinal organs. It is separated by diaphragm.
- pleura, serous membrane line the thoracic cavity
- pleural cavity, capillary space occupied by a thin film fluid. It will moisten and lubricates the pleural layers.
Inspiratory muscles – consists of diaphragm and external intercostal muscle (run obliquely downward and forward from rib to rib and pushes the sternum outward and increases the antero-posterior diameter of the chest)
Expiratory muscles – consists of muscles of the anterior abdominal wall (aid expiration by pulling the rib cage downward and inward; and increasing the extra abdominal pressure which pushes the diaphragm upward) and internal intercostal muscle (pass obliquely downward and posteriorly from rib to rib).
Respiratory center – has major parts the medullary center, pneumotaxic center and apneustic center.
1. Medullary center – it will initiate and maintaining the sequence of the respiratory cycle. It contains neurons necessary for the basic coordinated sequence of inspiration and expiration. It divides into inspiratory and expiratory center.
a. Inspiratory center – maximal inspiration follows electrical stimulation of some region.
b. Expiratory center – maximal expirations follows stimulation of some region.
- hyperventilation, results in rise in hydrogen. It has special receptors which believed to respond to hydrogen concentration.
2. Pneumotaxic center – located in the upper pons above the medullary center. It will accelerates respiration especially expiration. It generates impulses that descend to the expiratory center and inhibit inspiration.
3. Apneustic center – located in the lower pons. It will revealed when both the pneumotaxic and the vagi are inactivated.
- apneusis, cessation of respiration in the inspiratory position.
Regulation of respiratory center activity
- respiration, increases whenever cells of the body need more oxygen or carbon dioxide and decreases whenever they need less oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- chemoreceptor, receptors that are sensitive to chemical changes in their environment.
- carotid and aortic chemoreceptor, sensitive to changes on PO2, PCO2, and H concentration in arterial blood.
- known chemoreceptor:
a. Medullary chemoreceptor – located on the ventral surface of the brain stem. It is believed to monitor the hydrogen concentration of the cerebrospinal fluid or brain interstitial fluid.
- increases hydrogen it will stimulates respiration
b. Carotid bodies – small, pinkish nodules located just beyond the common carotid artery.
- carotid sinuses, contain mechanoreceptors that respond to changes in stretch or deformation of the carotid artery.
c. Aortic bodies – lie between the arch of the aorta and the pulmonary artery or on the dorsal aspect of the pulmonary artery.
- aortic pressorecepetors, wall of the ascending arch of the aorta
Non-respiratory air movements
- cough, closing of glottis and forcing superiorly from lungs against glottis.
- sneeze, expelled air is directed through nasal cavities instead of through oral cavity.
- other examples:
a. vomiting
b. swallowing
c. gagging
Expiration – air is leaving the lungs.
- inspiratory muscle relax, the lungs recoil and air rushes out
Inspiration – air is flowing into the lungs
- inspiratory muscles contract, intra-pulmonary volume increases, atmospheric pressure decreases and air rushes
Control of respiration
- nervous control includes the pons and medulla oblongata:
a. Medulla oblongata – sets the basic rhythm of breathing, contain a self exciting inspiratory center.
b. Pons – smooth out the basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration by the medulla.
Lung volume
1. Tidal volume (TV) – air into and out of the lungs with each breath.
2. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) – amount of air taken forcibly over the tidal volume.
3. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) – amount of air forcibly exhaled after a tidal expiration.
4. Residual volume (RV) – air remains in the lungs.
5. Vital capacity (VC) – total amount of exchangeable air. VC = TV + IRV + ERV
6. Dead space volume – air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the conducting zone passageway and never reaches the alveoli.
7. Functional volume – air reaches the respiratory zone and gas exchange is about 350 ml.
Voice – sound which is peculiar to each species of animals produced by vibration and approximation of the vocal cords.
- distinctive voices of the animals:
1. Horses – neigh
2. Bulls – bellow
3. Cows – low or mow
4. Mules – bray
5. Pigs – grunt
6. Sheep and goats – bleat
Normal respiration of the animals (rate/minute)
1. Cattle – 18-28
2. Sheep – 12-24
3. Goats – 12-20
4. Swine – 15-24
5. Horse – 8-16
6. Fowl – 15-30
The Urinary System
The main organs are the two kidneys, which lie against the backbone, and the bladder.
Waste materials and water are taken out of the blood in the kidneys. This forms urine. Urine collects in the bladder then passes out of the body.
Splanchnology is the name of the study of urinary system.
Kidney – located at the upper ends of the last ribs behind the liver and above the pancreas. It has several roles, namely:
1. regulate the concentration of metabolic wastes
2. regulate the osmotic pressure
3. regulate the fluid volume
4. regulate the ionic composition of our internal environment
- kidney aids in keeping the composition of blood plasma constant by:
1. excretion of urea and other nitrogenous waste products of metabolisms
2. elimination of excess inorganic salts
3. elimination of excess water
4. elimination of non-volatile, soluble foreign substances that may have gained entrance to the blood
- composed of million units of nephrons.
Nephrons - functional unit of kidneys.
- consists of several parts:
1. Glomerus - formed by the invagination of a tuft of capillaries. It is also known as Bowman’s capsule.
blind end of the nephrons
renal corpuscles or malphigian, collectively name for glomerus and Bowman’s capsule.
2. Proximal tubule - composed of a single layer of cuboidal or truncated pyramid cells resting on a basement membrane.
3. Loop of henle - hairpin like structure
4. Distal tubule - shorter than the proximal tubule; cells are cuboidal in the region of the descending thick limb and become more columnar in the cortical convolutions.
5. Collecting ducts
Ureters is the thick walled ducts which ovary convey urine from the kidneys to bladder
Urinary Bladder – found at the floor of the pelvis.
- when full, it may extend into the abdominal cavity
- storage of urine
Urethra - In female, very short and it opens into the floor of vulva behind the hymen.
- in male, long and in species of animals it forms a flexure in the penis.
Process of Urine Formation
Blood enters the filtering unit of the kidney via afferent arterioles ( renal artery) ------- glomerulus filters and purifies the blood, does not allow large particles such as protein and RBC to pass through ------filtered blood leaves the kidney going to the body through the efferent arteriole ( about 180 L of blood is filtered/day) -------the remaining filtrate in the glomerulus ( water, Na and other substances) is transported to the renal tubule reabsorbs water (99 %), glucose (100 %), amino acids, NaHCO3 most Na+ -------distal tubule and collecting ducts removes the excess fluids and /or conserve fluid through ADH and aldosterone system ------- glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion produce urine which flow in the collecting ducts, which eventually drains to the ureters ( normal urine output is at least < 1.25 ml/minute, or 30 ml/hour).
Role of ADH in Water Conservation
a. Since ADH is a vasoconstrictor, it reduces medullary and papillary blood flow in the renal interstitium thus, increasing tissue hypertonicity of the interstitium.
b. ADH may stimulate the sodium pump of the ascending loop of henle thus, increasing both the rate of sodium and transport from the tubule lumen to the interstitium and the concentration gradient of sodium between the interstitium and the fluid in the lumen of the tubules.
c. ADH may dilate the pores of the collecting duct thus, facilitates water reabsorption.
Reproductive System
Splanchnology is the name of the study of reproductive system.
The male reproductive organs, the testicles, lie in the scrotum behind the penis. The testicles produce sperm which are contained in the fluid semen. A tube passes from each testicle and joins to form a tube which runs down the centre of the penis. Testes have thermoregulatory muscles the cremaster and the dartos muscle.
In the bird the testicles are inside the body.
Reproductive and urinary organs of the male
Scrotum is the external covering of the testis. It is also protects the testes from direct mechanical injuries and also provides an environment which is a few degrees (6-8°F) cooler than the body temperature which is required for normal spermatogenesis.
Epididymis is the long convoluted tube which connects the vasa efferentia of the testis with the vas deferens.
Ductus deferens is also called vas deferens. It is a muscular tube which merges with the epididymis and propels the spermatozoa from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct in the urethra.
Urethra is a canal starting from the junction of the ampulla and ends at the opening of the penis. It is also serves as a common passage of semen and urine.
Ampulla is the enlarged portion of the ductus deferens just before its entrance into the urethra. It is serves as a temporary storage of sperm until ejaculation time.
Seminal vesicle is the paired glands which are located on either side of the ampulla. It produces a secretion high in fructose which acts as vehicle for sperm transport.
Prostate gland is the unpaired gland which more or less completely surrounds the urethra. It produces viscous secretions which stimulate sperm activity and gives the semen its characteristics odor.
Cowper’s gland is a small paired gland located on either side of pelvic urethra. It is also known as bulbourethral gland. It acts to wash residual urine out of the urethra when ejaculation of semen occurs.
Penis is the erectile tissue function is to drain the urinary bladder of urine. It is the copulatory organ for male. It serves to introduce the spermatozoa into the vagina.
Sigmoid flexure is the S-shaped of the penis. It is found in bulls, rams and boars. Retractor penis muscle will extend the penis from the sheath.
Semen consists of sperm cells plus the secretions of the three accessory glands. In vasectomized animals, the vas deferens is severed and the male is sterile but without losing the libido.
- castration, the removal of testicle. The male is sterile with loss of libido.
Testosterone is the male sex hormone. It is for the development of the secondary sex characteristics.
- characteristics of male:
a. muscular development at the rear quarters and shoulders
b. aggressiveness
c. libido
Seat of spermatozoa production
Seminiferous tubules (seat of spermatozoa production) -------------- rete testis ----------- vasa efferentia -------head of epididymis ----------- body and tail of epididymis ---------- vas deferens ----------- ampulla ---------- urethra of the penis ---------- penis (copulatory organ)
Seat of spermatogenesis
- seminiferous tubules
- FSH, stimulates the germinal epithelium lining of the seminiferous tubules
- LH, stimulates interstitial cells or leydig cells to secrete testosterone
- testosterone, final maturation of the spermatozoa
- inhibin, produced by sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules. It is the negative feedback effect on FSH secretions.
Spermatozoa consist of a head, neck or mid piece, and tail.
- head, covered by protoplasmic cap (galea capitis). It is flattened ovoid in shape in bull, ram, boar, and rabbit and rounded in man
- mid-piece and tail, composed of strands or fibrils covered by sheath
- tail, tip of the tail the fibrils flare out into a naked brush
- common abnormalities:
a. protoplasmic droplets at the mid-piece
b. headless or tailless
c. giant and miniature heads
d. bent, coiled and shoe-hooked tailed sperm cells
- 50 % of the total sperm counts usually sterile
- dead-alive staining technique, determined the number of dead sperms
- life span for female reproductive tract is 24 hours (20-30 hours) for mammals and for chicken is 14 days
Male reproductive system of poultry is composed of testicles, vas deferens and papilla.
a. Testicles – produces the sperm and seminal fluid
b. Vas deferens – carries the seminal fluid and sperm cells to the cloaca
c. Papilla – organ in the wall of the cloaca that puts the sperm cells into the hens reproductive tract
The female reproductive organ consists of two ovaries, one in each side of the lower abdomen. The ovaries produce eggs which pass into the uterus (or womb). Below the uterus is the vagina which opens to the outside surrounded by the vulva. After birth the young are fed on milk produced by the udder.
During mating (mounting) sperm passes from the male into the uterus and joins with the eggs there. When the sperm joins the egg it forms the embryo which develops into the young animal inside the uterus.
Ovary is the principal sex organs of the females. The main functions of ovary are for the production of sex cells or ovum and production of female sex hormone, estrogen.
- almond shape
- layers:
a. Outer layer (cortex) – made up of germinal epithelium with a very large number of primary follicle each of which contains a potential ovum
b. Inner layer (medulla) – contains blood vessels, nerves, ganglion cells, stroma and embryonic vestiges
Infundibulum is the funnel shaped structure and picks up the egg when released by the ovary.
Oviduct is also known as fallopian tube. It is a tubular structure connecting the infundibulum to the horn of uterus. It is also the beginning of embryonic development after fertilization.
- serves as passageway of the egg on its way to the uterus
- site of fertilization
Uterus is the site of implantation for the fertilized egg. It serves where fetus would develop during the stage of pregnancy.
Cervix is the neck of the uterus. It serves as sperm receptacle in certain animals. Os uteri (opening), closes when the animal gets pregnant to protect the uterine contents
Vagina is the primary organ of copulation. It serves as the receptacle of the sperm cells. It comprises a part of the birth canal of the animal.
Vulva is the common passageway for the products of reproduction and for urine. It is homologous with the scrotum of the male.
Clitoris is the rudimentary organ located in the ventral commisure of the vulva. It is homologous to the glans penis of the male.
Broad ligament suspends the female genital system from the dorsolateral walls of the pelvic canal. It has specialized regions, namely:
a. Mesometrium – suspends the anterior portion of the vagina, cervix, and uterus
b. Mesosalpinx – suspends the oviduct
c. Mesovarium – suspends the ovary
- bursa, pocket like structure. It is formed by fusion of 2 or more mesovarium, mesosalpinx, and infundibulum.
Sub-urethral diverticulum is the blind pouch opening into the floor of the genital tract. It is found at the junction between the vagina and the vulva.
- neck of the bladder opens through the roof of sub-urethral diverticulum; this relationship would appear to be a safety feature to prevent entrance of foreign objects into the urinary bladder.
Female reproductive system (poultry) is composed of 2 ovaries and 2 oviducts. It is only the left ovary and oviduct produce eggs. It takes about 25 to 27 hours for a chicken to produce one egg.
Ovary produces the ova and the developed egg yolks.
Oviducts consist of five parts these are the infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus and the vagina.
Infundibulum is the funnel shaped structure that receives the yolk from the ovary. It is where the sperm cells receive from the rooster.
Magnum secretes the thick white of the egg and takes about 3 hours for the thick white to develop.
Isthmus secretes the shell membranes and takes about 1 ¼ hours to developed the shell membranes.
Uterus is also known as the shell gland. It is where the thin white and the outer shell are added to the egg, and takes about 20 hours to develop.
Vagina is the temporary storage of the egg.
Reproduction is controlled by hormones (chemical messengers) which are carried in the blood to the different organs.
These hormones control:
- Puberty of the animal
- Production of eggs
- Birth
- Production of semen
- Development of the embryo
- Milk production
Puberty will indicates that the animals reached the sexual maturity and capable of producing offspring. The best signs that the female reaches the puberty when it starts to show signs of estrus and male will eject semen.
- age puberty in animals (months)
1. Cattle – male 10-12; female 8-10
2. Sheep – male 4-6; female 5-7
3. Goats – male 4-6; female 7-10
4. Swine – male 4-8; female 4-7
5. Horses – male 13-18; female 15-24
6. Chicken – male and female 5.5-6.5
Estrus is a phenomenon in which the female exhibits an irresistible desire to be mated. It is also called in heat. Heat or estrus is the period when the female will accept the male and mate.
- signs of heat
1. reddening and swelling of the vulva
2. mucus discharges from the vagina
3. frequent urination
4. restless and lack of appetite
5. mounting other animals in the herd
6. stand still when mounted by the male (best sign of heat)
- length of estrus
1. Cattle – 12-18 hours
2. Sheep – 24-36 hours
3. Goats – 34-38 hours
4. Swine – 49-72 hours
5. Horses – 4-8 days
Estrous cycle (EC) is the period from one estrus to the next estrus.
- FSH causes growth and development of the GF in the ovary. The developing follicles called estrogen, causes estrus in female.
- inhibin, inhibits FSH production
- LH causes ovulation of maturing follicles and formation of CL. CL secretes a specific hormone called progesterone.
- progesterone, prepares the endometrium of the uterus for implantation and maintains the normal pregnancy.
- uterus, secretes prostaglandin F2 alpha that destroy the CL and regression or luteolysis of the CL.
Sequence of events in EC
APG --------- FSH ---------- GF --------- Estrogen ----------- LH ------------- heat or estrus ---------- CL ---------- Progesterone ----------- Uterus --------------- Prostaglandin ------------ FSH
- average EC (days)
1. Cattle – 21
2. Sheep – 16
3. Goats – 20
4. Swine – 20
5. Horses – 22
- based on occurrence of EC
1. Monoestrus – comes in heat only once a year
2. Seasonally polyestrus – comes in heat at certain seasons only, e.g. sheep
3. Polyestrus – comes in heat all throughout the year, e.g. carabao, swine , and cattle
- phases of EC
1. Proestrus – characterized by follicular growth. It is nucleated epithelial cells.
2. Estrus – under the influence of estrogen. It is cornified cells
3. Metestrus – characterized by the formation of CL. Some leukocytes among cornified cells
4. Diestrus – under the influence of progesterone secreted by the CL. Leukocytes predominate among the nucleated epithelial cells.
Ovulation is the liberation of the ripe ovum from the GF. It occurs at the end of the heat period.
- animals also classified as
1. Spontaneous ovulators – ovulate spontaneously during or at around estrus, e.g. goat, carabao, cattle, sheep, hogs.
2. Induced ovulators – do not ovulate unless there is copulation, e.g. rabbit
- time of ovulation
1. Cattle – 10-12 hours after estrus
2. Sheep – late estrus
3. Goats – late estrus
4. Swine – mid estrus
5. Horses – before estrus
Best time to bred or inseminate
1. Cattle – late estrus
2. Sheep – mid estrus
3. Goats – mid estrus
4. Swine – second day
5. Horses – every other day starting second day
Fertilization is the union of the ovum and spermatozoa which usually takes place in the oviduct and only one sperm fertilizes an ovum.
- before fertilization there will be a reduction of chromosomes to half its number in a process known as maturation.
- chromosomes carry the genes which carry the maternal and paternal hereditary characteristics.
Gestation period is also known as pregnancy.
- signs of gestation
1. cessation of estrus
2. animal develops a slicker appearance and puts on fat
3. she becomes more docile in temperament
4. swelling of the udder
5. fetal movements are observed after the first half of pregnancy
6. abdomen become bigger
- signs of approaching delivery
1. rumps are depressed
2. teat canal is plugged with a waxy substances
3. animal isolates herself and in case of pigs, the animals gathers leaves, twigs, and rags with which to build the farrowing litter
4. udder swells and becomes very tense
5. external genitalia, gapes and discharge is observed emanating from the vulva
6. animal lies down frequently
Parturition is the expulsion of fetus at the end of gestation period. The delivery may be either normal or abnormal.
- normal presentation is either anterior or posterior
1. Anterior presentation, front legs together with the nose (head) between the knees come out ahead other parts
2. Posterior presentation, 2 hind legs comes out ahead of other parts
- abnormal presentation
1. wry neck presentation where the two front legs come out but the head is folded backwards
2. head and neck are out but the front legs are folded under backwards
3. all four limbs come out at the same time
4. tail comes out first but the 2 hind legs are folded under the body
It is better to leave the cow alone to give birth naturally. However if you want to help with the calving you can gently pull the calf by its feet. If the navel cord is still attached to the cow you can cut it with a clean sharp knife or a pair of scissors, then put tincture of iodine or alcohol on the end of the navel cord.
Sometimes the back feet of the calf appear first. You can tell the back feet from the front by looking carefully. You will see that the back feet come out from the vulva with the soles of the feet showing uppermost. You should then look (or feel with your hands) for the tail and the hock joints.
You will need a bar of soap, hot water, a clean rope and clean vegetable oil such as olive or sunflower oil.
Wash the area around the vulva and wash your hands well. Make sure that your fingernails are cut short and are thoroughly clean. Long nails can injure the animal. If you have oil put some over your hand and arm, if not, soap your hand and insert it into the vagina to discover what is wrong.
You will need to recognize the difference between the front and back legs of the calf in the womb. Touch the fetlock joint and then run your hand up the leg to the next joint. There will be a knee joint on the front leg and a hock on the back leg. Push the calf either to one side or back into the uterus so that you can correct the situation and move the head and legs into the right place for birth.
When the calf's head and legs are in the correct position tie a clean rope around both feet. Pull gently on the rope. You may need someone to help you pull.
Sometimes the water bag will burst but neither the feet nor the head will have appeared. This is a very difficult position to sort out and if you can you should immediately ask your veterinarian for help.
Lactation is the nursing period by the mother. It will continue until the weaning of the young. The milk is produced by secretory cells in the udder.
Milk is produced in the udder from nutrients in the blood which flows through the vessels (tubes) in each quarter. The greater the amount of blood passing through the udder the greater the amount of milk which is produced. The milk is released as the teat is sucked or squeezed.
Milking by hand will take from 5 to 10 minutes. The udder should be emptied at each milking and this will stimulate the udder to develop more milk. Always milk the animal quietly. A good time to milk is in the morning before the animal goes out to graze and in the evening. Always milk at the same time each day.
Body Temperature
The body must be kept at a constant temperature, within a small range, in order for all of the systems to work properly. This is the normal body temperature.
A change in the temperature of the body is a sign of ill health.
Body temperature regulation
- 2 groups:
1. Homeotherms – also known as warm blooded animals. The temperature is largely independent of that of the environment.
2. Poikilotherms – also known as cold blooded animals. The body temperature varies directly with that of the environment.
Processes of heat dissipation
1. Conduction – is the direct contact of the animal with a part of its environment. The thermal energy is transferred from one molecule to a neighboring molecule.
2. Convection – is the heat transferred to or from the animal by the movement of heated air particles. It is the process by which the actual mass motion of heated gas (liquid) transfers heat from one place to another.
3. Radiation – is the transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves at the speed of 186, 000 miles per second. No material medium or physical contact between the animal.
4. Vaporization – is the process by which the animal loses heat to maintain a constant body temperature. It depends on the temperature of the skin and the covering of the skin.
Ambient temperatures at which body temperature and heat production events occur vary with:
1. species of animal
2. age and size of animal
3. posture
4. nature of body covering or other qualities affecting insulation
5. previous nutritional status
6. wind movement and humidity
7. degree of activity
8. other experimental situations such as degree of acclimatization
The normal body temperature
The body can only work properly at a certain temperature. The animal body maintains itself at a constant temperature, within a small range, in order for the systems to work properly. This normal body temperature is different in different types of animals.
There are a number of ways by which animals control the temperature of the body:
1. Hair, wool, walking, running, shivering and the burning of energy in feed keep the body warm.
2. Sweating, panting, wallowing in mud, and lying in the shade cool the body.
Measuring body temperature
We use a thermometer to measure the temperature of the body. The unit of measurement is degrees centigrade (°C). The normal temperature of your body is 37°C. We measure the body temperature of animals by placing a thermometer in the anus.
Look at your thermometer. Notice the silver line of the mercury inside it and the scale with numbers marked along it.
- Before you use it you must make sure that the mercury level is below 35°C. If it is not, shake the thermometer to make the level go down.
- Every time you use the thermometer clean it with cold water and soap or disinfect it afterwards.
Do not wash the thermometer in hot water as this will burst it. Do not leave your thermometer in the sun as this may burst it. Carry the thermometer in a case in your pocket or bag. Do not use your veterinary thermometer for people.
How to take the body temperature of animals?
- Control the animal.
- Move the tail to the side.
- Put the thermometer gently into the anus, as far as possible.
- Hold the thermometer at an angle so that it touches the wall of the rectum. Keep a firm grip on the thermometer, if the animal defecates or coughs the thermometer could come out or go into the rectum.
- Hold the thermometer in place for half a minute. If you do not have a watch count slowly up to 30 (one, two, three ... thirty).
- Remove the thermometer and wipe it if necessary and read it. Do not touch the bulb as this could change the reading.
How to take the body temperature of animals
Normal body temperatures
Animal Normal Temperature °C Normal Animal Temperature °C
Cattle 38.5 Calf 39.5
Buffalo 38.2 Goat 39.5
Sheep 39.0 Camel* 34.5-41.0
Llama, alpaca 38.0 Horse 38.0
Donkey 38.2 Pig 39.0
Chicken 42.0 Piglet 39.8
Body temperatures may be 1°C above or below these temperatures.
* The camel's body temperature will vary with the time of day and water availability. When a camel is watered daily its body temperature rises from 36.5°C in the morning to 39.5°C at noon, if the animal has no water, the temperature range is 34.5°C to 41°C.
If you suspect that the animal has a high temperature use your thermometer to check it. Remember that a high temperature is one sign of ill health. When an animal has a high temperature it has a fever.
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