Ruminant Production

A. CATTLE



Breed classifications:

- based on place of origin or adaptation

1. Bos indicus (Zebu breeds)

 adapted to tropical conditions

 has survived through centuries exposure to inadequate conditions such as food supplies, insect pests, parasites/diseases and weather extreme of tropical India.



2. Bos Taurus (European breeds)

 adapted to temperate conditions





Characteristics of Zebu breeds as compared to temperate breeds:

1. large hump over top of shoulder and neck

2. large pendulous ears

3. dewlap having large amounts of excess skin

4. highly develop sweat glands (perspire more freely)

5. oily secretion from the sebaceous gland (believed to repel insect)



Based on the type of products:

- basically, cattle are kept to provide meat, milk and labor (draft animal power); beast of burden

1. Beef cattle – for meat

2. Dairy cattle – for milk



Breed – is a group of animals having common origin and possessing certain distinguishing characteristics which set them apart from other groups.



Zebu breeds Origin

Brahman US

Indu-brazil Brazil

Kankref India

Krishna India

Nellore Brazil

Red Sindhi Pakistan

Sahiwal India

Sta. Gertrudis US

Tharparkar India



Temperate breeds Origin

Angus Scotland

Chianina Italy

Simmental Switzerland

Ayrshire Scotland

Brown Swiss Switzerland

Guernsey France

Holstein-Friesian Netherlands

Jersey France



Breeding management:

- manipulative skills involved in producing the desired type of animals.



Breeding – art and science of genetic improvement

 attained through proper mating of selected animals



Selection – process in which some individuals are chosen over as parents of the next generation

 basis of selection; individual possessing desired traits and characteristics

1. Beef cattle – calf crop, rate of gain (ADG), carcass quality grade, FCE, etc.

2. Dairy cattle – milk yield, milk fat yield, FCE, etc.



System of breeding:

1. Inbreeding – is the mating of relatives (with common ancestor within the first 4 generations)

 results in increased homozygosity (the state in which an animal has more uniform offspring because their chromosomes tend to be more alike)

a. linebreeding – is an inbreeding practice whereby several lines of pedigree are bred back to certain individuals

 retains the favorable genetic traits of an ancestor to its offspring



2. Outbreeding – is the breeding/mating of unrelated individuals (heterozygosity or less uniform offspring)

 offers opportunity to combine better genes through selection

a. crossbreeding – mating of individuals from two distinct breeds; crossbred is the resulting offspring

b. upgrading – mating of an animal from an unrecognized breed with a distinct breed; grade or upgrade is the resulting offspring



Breeding methods:

1. Natural method

- conventional use of bull to impregnate a heifer or cow

a. hand mating – a bull in good condition can serve 3-4 times/week or one service every other day

18 months old - 1:12-15

2 years old - 1:20-25

3 years old - 1:40-50

b. pasture mating (2-3 months)

2-3 year old bull - 10-15 cows

9 years old bull - 20-25 cows



2. Artificial insemination – process of inducing fertilization in female without the benefit of sexual contact between male and female animals

- involves collection of semen from bulls and artificially introducing it into the cow or heifers to achieve pregnancy

- requires detection of heat or estrus to determine when to inseminate

- requires detection of pregnancy to determine whether further insemination is needed



Outward physiological manifestation of in-heat animals (signs of estrus):

1. Reddening/swelling of vulva

2. Mucus discharges from vagina

3. Frequent urination

4. Restless and lack of appetite

5. Mounting other animals

6. Female stands still when mounted



Some basic parameters related to breeding management:

Parameters Goat Sheep Cattle

Weaning age (mos.) 3 3 6-8

Age at 1st estrus (mos.) 7-9 7-8 8-10

Estrous cycle (days) 18-24 15-19 18-24

Estrus (heat) period (hours) 24-72 18-24 8-30

Occurrence of estrus after parturition (post-partum) 2 months 17 days 3-8 weeks

Average length of gestation period (days) 150 150 283

Suitable age for breeding (months)

Male

Female



8

10



12

12



18

18-24

Male: Female (pasture mating) 1:20-25 1:20-25 1:10-25





Herd health management:

1. Hygiene and sanitation program

 aimed at maintaining the contact of the animals with agents of infectious diseases or carriers/sources of these agents

 hygienic measures:

- confine animals in suitable housing, whenever possible

- ample spaces or feeding, dinking, resting, clean house/disinfect; well-drained holding area

- proper disposal of dead animals

- check the drinking water supply (portable not contaminated with pathogenic microorganism)

- quarantine of premises during outbreaks of diseases

- regular grooming of animals

• to remove dirtstimulate the skins oil gland



2. Regular vaccination program

 vaccination involves exposing an animal to an antigen derived from an infectious agent so that immune response is stimulated and the animal acquire to that infectious agent before natural infection occurs

 groups of classic vaccines according to the status or bioactive agent included:



a. live antigen

b. killed (inactivated) antigen

- killed is for bacterial vaccines

- inactivated is for vaccines used against viruses or toxins



 rendering immunity to animals against viruses or toxins

a. passive immunization – provides temporary resistance by transferring antibodies

e.g. colostral immunoglobulins



b. active immunization – is the result of natural infection or vaccination which involves the administration of antigen



 some important disease in cattle

a. Foot and mouth disease (FMD) - Apthovirus types A, O, C

b. Hemorrhagic septicemia - Pasteurella multocida

c. Anthrax - Bacillus anthracis

d. Blackleg/malignant - Clostridium chauvei/septicum

e. Tetanus - Clostridium tetani



3. Regular parasitic control program

 parasitism the most commonly encountered disease in the rural areas

- most important health problem considered by small farmers

 type of parasites:

a. ectoparasites – found in the external surfaces of the animals body

b. endoparasites – inhabit the internal body organ (lungworms, liverflukes, kidney worms, intestinal worms)



Disease prevention procedures (biosecurity measures):

1. Quarantine measures

 isolation of animals upon arrival

 strict selection of animals free from diseases

 usual symptoms of diseases:

a. fever

b. inappetence

c. coughing

d. sneezing

e. diarrhea

f. constipation

g. rapid breathing or thumping

h. recumbency

i. poor condition

j. rough hair coat

k. runting

l. abortion



2. Isolation of diseased animals



Feeding management:

 ruminants (like cattle, carabao, goat, and sheep) can subsist on grasses and other fibrous feed materials

 the compound stomach of ruminants enables it to utilize low quality feeds:

a. Rumen – fermentation vat; microbial degradation of ingesta

b. Reticulum – microbial degradation; aids in regurgitation

c. Omasum – further digestion

d. Abomasum – glandular (true) stomach



 esophageal groove serve as passageway of milk in young ruminants to flow directly to the omasum bypassing the other compartments thus preventing microbial action

 microbial action includes secretion of enzymes that converts carbohydrates and fiber in feeds to VFA (acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid)

 VFA the primary source of energy in ruminants



Groups of feeds for ruminants feeding:

1. Roughages – contain > 18 % CF e.g. grasses leaves of fodder trees like kakawate and ipil-ipil, rice straw, corn stover, etc.

2. Concentrates – contain < 18 % CF, high amount o digestible nutrients e.g. rice bran, copra meal, etc.

3. Feed additives and mineral supplements – added to improve feed utilization and balance the nutrients

 shotgun treatment – giving of mineral mixtures to prevent deficiency



Ration – is the amount of feed provided to the animal in one day



Nutrient requirements – is the amount of nutrients required by the animal to meet the targeted production performance or output



Feeding strategy:

1. Confinement feeding (zero grazing) – cut and carry feeding system

 lower energy expenditure for foraging

 prevents trampling on high yielding pasture

 lesser exposure to stresses imposed by weather changes, parasite infection



2. Tethering

 practiced by small hold farmers

 amount of feed intake is affected by the length of rope and frequency of tethering which is being dictated by the amount of available forage in the area.



3. Extensive grazing

 animal freely forage feeds by itself in an area that may be enclosed by fences







Feed consumption capacity:

 daily DM consumption ranges from 2.5 % of the body weight in mature animals to 3.0 % in younger or growing animals

 in practical feeding, additional 10-15 % of the daily amount DM should be given to cover for animal feed preferences as not all the feeds will be consumed

 feed wastage in the bran results trampling of the animal and contaminated with animals excreta. Animal will not consume such conditions of feeds

 additional feed resources:

- leaves of leguminous fodder trees like ipil-ipil can supply up to 30 % of the total feed requirement. Legume leaves are good protein source which can replace the use of expensive protein feeds.



Housing:

 the functions of animal shelter are as follows:

1. protection against climatic elements (rain, wind and temperature)

2. protection against losses due to theft, predators, infectious diseases and traumatic injuries



 housing design must suit the desired performance and control of husbandry and breeding measures such as feeding, breeding and selection, reproductive events, rearing of the young and sanitation and hygiene.

 in feedlot cattle production

- structure should be built with ample space foe efficient health maintenance and manure management

 items to be included:

1. roofed, concrete floor squeeze for animal restraint

2. flow-through configuration to minimize distance to be traveled by the animal

3. durability of materials



 other farm structures:

1. loading ramp

2. processing (routine operations: marketing, treatment deworming, spraying, etc.)

3. feeding pens

- floor space per animal 3-5 m2

- 1 side lined with feeding trough

• 0.45 m (18 in) elevated from the floor to trough bottom

• shallow trough floor (prevent feed decomposition)

• 0.45-0.6 m width



Manure management:

 fresh manure

- about 5 % of a feedlot animals live weight

- which is 2x its 2.5 % DM daily ration

- contains 20-25 % DM, 75-80 % water



B. GOAT



Scientific name: Capra hircus



Some attributes:

1. Biological herbicide

2. Browsing ability (browser)

3. Diet: 40 % grasses and 60 % forbs (shrubs, herds)

4. bipedal stance

5. Ability to nibble barks of trees

6. Mobile lips (prehensile organ)

7. Walk long distances in search for food

8. Very selective in terms of feed preference (young shoot first is eaten)





Some breeds of goat in the country:



Breeds OriginAnglo-nubian England/USA

Saanen Switzerland

Alpine France/Switzerland

Toggenburg Switzerland

La Mancha Oregon/Spain

Boer South Africa

Native goat Philippines



C. SHEEP



Scientific name: Ovies aries



Some attributes:

1. Biological lawnmower

2. Essentially grazers

3. Flocking instinct

- pecking order, a social behavior related to hierarchy of dominance

4. Less selective of feed offered than goats

- can utilize rice straw

5. Feed preference and digestive efficiency

- comparable to cattle (commonly used to evaluate nutritive value of feeds intended or cattle)

- less efficient than goats and water buffaloes in utilizing highly fibrous roughages



Some breeds of sheep that has been brought into the country:



Breeds Origin

Barbados blackbelly Barabados Island with African ancestry

Priangan Indonesia

Shropshire England

Suffolk England

Merino Spain









Housing: floor space requirement (m2)



Category Zero grazing Day time grazing

Breeding females 1.5 0.8

Breeding bucks 2.0 1.5

Young stock (up to 1 yr old) 0.8 0.5



 The estimation of the floor area of the goat house should be based on the number of breeding females with consideration o some of its parameters. This includes conception rate at 80 %; kidding interval of 8 months (or 1.5 kidding per year); an average kidding size of 1.5 kids per kidding; a disposal age of one year for grower animals; an annual replacement rate of 20 % for female breeders; and 80 % livability rate up to 1 year of age. However, the idea for possible expansion should be considered in the lay-out of the goat house.



e.g. 25 doe-level

1. Breeder females (does)

25 does x 1.5 m2 per doe = 37.5 m2

2. Breeder male (buck)

1 buck x 2.0 m2 per buck = 2 m2

3. Young stock

25 does x 80 % conception rate x 1.5 kids/kidding x 1.5 kidding/year x 80 % livability rate = 36 offspring/year x 0.8 m2 per animal = 28.8 m2

Total floor area = 68.3 m2

Total number of goats = 62 head



 Feeding space – 0.4 m per animal

 Floor elevation – 1.0-1.5 m above the ground (for ease of manure collection disposal)

 Fencing is needed to effectively control the animals in the pasture

- goat = 1.5 m high (made of hog wire)

- sheep = 1.0 m high (made of hog wire)

- cattle = 1.0 m high (made of 3 strands of barbed wire)



Some infectious diseases of goats and sheep:



Disease Cause

1. Bacterial scours in kids Multiple bacterial agents (enteropathogen)

2. Bacterial pneumonia Multiple bacterial agents (pneumopathogens)

3. Infectious arthritis (big knee) Multiple bacterial agents acting singly or together (Erysipelorthrix, Corynebacterium, Chlamydia, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, etc.)

Predisposing: dirty or unsanitary pens and areas of confinement

4. Mastitis Multiple bacterial causes with Streptococcus, Pasteurella, Corynebacteria and Escherichia most commonly noted. Also caused by Mycoplasma, Nochardia and Candida spp.

5. Contagious opthalmia or infectious kerato- Chlamydia and Mycoplasma spp.

conjunctivitis

6. Contagious ecthyma or sore mouth Virus

7. FMD (foot and mouth disease) Virus types identified in the Philippines: A, O, C

8. Foot rot Bacteria (Spherophorus necrophorus)

Predisposing: wounds in the feet, wet and muddy ground

9. Hemorrhagic septicemia Bacteria (Pasteurella multocida)

Predisposing: climatic stress, fatigue, transport, nutritional and parasitic stresses, etc.

10. Anthrax Bacteria (Bacillus anthracis)

11. Blackleg Bacteria (Clostridium chauvoei)

12. Tetanus Bacteria (Clostridium tetani)





Common parasitic diseases of goats and sheep:



Disease Cause

1. Parasitic gastroenteritis Various species of parasitic nematodes in the digestive tract. Young animals most susceptible.

2. Parasitic pneumonia Dictyocaulus spp. (adult stages in the bronchioles of lungs)

3. Tapeworm infection Moniesa spp.

4. Liver fluke infection Fasciola gigantica and F. hepatica. Requires intermediate hosts (Lymnea auriculata)

5. Coccidiosis Protozoa (Eimeria spp.) generally not a primary condition but exists with other enteric diseases

6. Cutaneous myasis or bowfly infestation Maggots of calliphorine lies (Lucilla, Calliphora and Chrysomia spp.)



Metabolic diseases of goats and sheep:



Disease Cause

1. Bloat Occurs under ordinary condition of management specially when feed lush herbage

2. Milk fever (hypocalcemia) Actual: deficiency of calcium in the bloodstream

Predisposing: grazing on young and rapidly growing forage, fasting or starvation in the last stages of pregnancy or during lactation, all forms of climatic and environmental stresses, heavy concentrate feeding without calcium supplement

3. Grass tetany (hypomagnesia) Actual: deficiency of magnesium in the bloodstream together with physiologic disturbances mostly neuromuscular arising from combined deficiency and steroid action.

Predisposing: lush pasture, over fertilization

of pasture with K and N or confinement and overfeeding with concentrate deficient in Mg or low in energy, pregnancy and lactation, sudden management or environmental stresses

4. Pregnancy toxemia (ketosis or acetonemia) Actual: acute glucose deficiency in the last stage of pregnancy due to twinning, large and rapid growing kid and sudden deficiency of feed

Predisposing: any sudden drop of intake attended stresses (starvation due to feed withdrawal/isolation without feed, transport climatic changes), also poor health, parasitism and other concomitant diseases

5. Urinary calculi Mostly associated with faulty mineral nutrition, confinement or concentrate feeding, inadequate water intake, vitamin A deficiency and infections of the urinary tract with Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma

6. Neonatal hypoglycemia Direct or actual: low glucose level in the blood

Predisposing: poor management at kidding time resulting to chilling, inability to suckle, prolonged delivery causing weak kids, injuries trauma, etc. may arise from individual unable to provide milk due to concurrent infection, low milk yield, or bad temper and other stressful conditions affecting dam and kid

7. Acute indigestion (lactic acidosis or grain Sudden dietary changes such as exposure and feeding of concentrates after prolonged high roughage diet



Some terms related to ruminant production:



Forage – edible parts of plants other than separated grain that can provide feed for grazing animals or that can be harvested for feeding.



Browse – leaf and twig growth of shrubs, woody vines, trees, cacti and other non-herbaceous vegetation available for animal consumption.



Forbs – any herbaceous broadleaf plant that is not a grass and is not grass-like (sedges).



Aftermath – forage grown following a harvest.



Sward – a population of herbaceous plants, characterized by a relatively short habit of growth and relatively continuous ground cover, including above and below-ground parts.



Animal unit – one mature non-lactating bovine weighing 350 kg (tropical condition) or 500 kg (temperate areas) and fed at a maintenance level, or the equivalent expressed as (weight) 0.75, in other kinds or classes o animals.



Daily dry matter intake or consumption – equal to 2.5-3.0 % of body weight.



Carrying capacity – the maximum stocking rate that will achieve a target level of animal performance, in a specified grazing method, that can be applied in over a defined time period without deterioration of the ecosystem.



Grazing pressure – the relationship between the number of animal units or forage intake units and the weight of forage drymatter per unit area at any one point in time; an animal to forage relationship.



Stocking density – the relationship between the number of animals and the specific unit of land being grazed at any one point.



Stocking rate – the relationship between the number of animals and the grazing management unit utilized over a specified time period.



Grazing cycle – the time elapsed between the beginning of one grazing period and the beginning of the next grazing period in the same paddock where the forage is regularly grazed and rested.



Grazing period – the length of times that grazing livestock or wildlife occupy a specific land area.



Alternate stocking – the repeated grazing and resting of forage using two paddocks in succession.



Continuous stocking – a method of grazing livestock on a specific unit of land where animals have unrestricted and uninterrupted access throughout the time period when grazing is allowed.



Deferred grazing – the deferred grazing in a non-systematic rotation with other and units.



Rotational stocking – a grazing method that utilizes recurring periods of grazing and rest among to or more paddocks in a grazing management unit throughout the period when grazing is allowed.



D. CARABAO/BUFFALO



What is the scientific name of?

1. Carabao – Bubalus bubalis carabanensis

2. Buffalo – Bubalus bubalis

3. Tamaraw – Bubalus mindorensis



Terminologies:



Carabao – Philippine water buffalo or swamp Carabao



Cara – prefix connected to the sex, class and meat of Carabao as introduced by Dr. Valente Villegas.



Carabeef – meat of Carabao



Carabull – breeding bull at any age



Caracow – mature female that already given birth



Caraheifer – female Carabao below 2 years of age and has not yet given birth



Chevron – two diagonal stripes on the ventral side of the neck, one near the brisket and the other near the jaw.



Draft animal – Carabao used for work



Silent heat – estrous behavior of Carabao wherein the animal is physiologically “in heat” but does not show any visible signs.



Wallow – to roll in mud or water



Yoke – a piece of arched or curved timber or wood fitted on the neck of draft Carabao.



Types of water buffalo:

1. Swamp type – Bubalus bubalis carabanensis, 2n = 48

 breeds available are Philippine Carabao, Cambodian and Chinese buffaloes

 light gray to gray, white bands below the jaw and across the chest and legs

 sickle-shaped horns

 1.5-2 kg of milk/day



2. River type – Bubalus bubalis, 2n = 50

 breeds available are Indian and Bulgarian buffalo

 black or dark gray in color

 with tightly curled or drooping straight horn

 dairy type buffalo can produce 8-10 liters of milk daily





Philippine Carabao Center (PCC):

 created by virtue of RA 7307, otherwise known as the Philippine Carabao Act of 1992

 an attached agency of the department of agriculture

 became operational in 1993

 signed into law by president Cory Aquino

 main thrusts are:

- to develop the Philippine Carabao as source of milk, meat and raft through AI and natural mating.

- to conserve the Philippine Carabao

- to produce the best riverine buffalo for dairy

- RA 8485 or animal welfare act was signed into law in 1997 by President Fidel Ramos

- to protect and promote the welfare of all animals by supervising and, regulating the establishment and operations of all facilities utilized for breeding, maintaining, treating or training all animals.

- this law supersede the EO 626 or the Carabao slaughter ban



Breeding:

 the Carabao can be bred throughout the year. Mating season usually takes place during the wet season.

 high incidence of silent heat during dry season

 estrous cycle is usually occurs every 21 days (range from 18-25 days)

 estrus period (sexual receptivity) is 18 hours (range from 5-36 hours)

 ovulation takes place, on the average, 15 hours after estrus



Gestation length and others:

 gestation period is about 320 days (range 295 to 339 days)

 age at first calving is about 3 to 4 years old

 calving interval may range from 18 to 24 months



Crossbreeding program:

 If the swamp buffalo is crossed with riverine buffalo, what will be the chromosome number of the offspring?

- all first generation offspring will have a chromosome number of 49

- inter se mating of F1 resulted to offspring F2 with 48, 49, and 50 chromosome numbers having 1:2:1 ratio

 The unbalanced chromosome is due to the fusion of chromosome 4 and 9

- Are they fertile? Yes



Housing for feedlot fattening:

 in an open confinement

- Mature feeders = 4 to 4.7 sq. m.

- Yearling = 2.8 to 3.7 sq. m.



Comparative composition of milk:



Composition Cattle Carabao

Water 87.28 80.16

Fat 3.80 8.60

Protein 3.30 5.20

Sugar 4.90 5.10

Mineral 0.72 0.94



Physical characteristics of meat:



Parameters Cattle Carabao

Muscle fiber diameter, micron

Semi-membranosus 60.28 54.28

Longissimus dorsi 58.16 53.47

Tenderness, lb/sq. in. 2.02 1.63

Firmness, mm 10.30 11.21

Water holding capacity, % 79.55 80.33

Acidity, pH 6.09 6.07

Sensory characteristics of meat:



Parameters Cattle Carabao

Color 4.77 4.58

Flavor 5.31 5.20

Off-flavor 1.28 1.22

Tenderness 5.00 4.62

Juiciness 5.19 5.13

General acceptability 5.54 5.13



What is Carabao slaughter ban?

 EO 628 of 1990 locally known as 7-11 law; prohibits the slaughter of Carabao below 7 years old for male and 11 years old for female (also known as the Carabao slaughter ban)



How was it lifted?

 RA 8485 of 1998 sec. 8 “Animal Welfare Act” this allows the slaughter of Carabao/buffaloes of any age provided the animal is not pregnant.

Unit 15: Swine Production

What is the scientific name of swine?

 Sus scrofa / domesticus



Common breeds of swine in the Philippines:

1. The Philippine native pig

 the native pigs are generally small and mostly solid black or black and white, with small ears, sway back, and with weak pasterns. They have good mothering ability, mostly prolific, and generally resistant to adverse conditions and adapted to local rural arm conditions.



2. Large white (Yorkshire)

 large white is a white breed known for its good mothering ability and large litter size. The ears are medium-sized and carried erect. The snout is relatively short and straight and the legs are generally sturdy and strong. Some individuals in this breed are relatively short with big belly. They also tend to produce carcasses with thicker back fat.



3. Landrace

 Landrace is also a white breed; some landrace have bluish-black spots/markings on the skin. This breed has a long body, large drooping ears, and long and relatively straight snout. It is also known for its mothering ability and prolificacy. The major defect o this breed is the weak hind legs and pasterns.



4. Duroc

 this breed varies considerably in color of the skin and coat, which ranges from light golden brown o very dark red. Most duroc are cherry red. The head is small in proportion to the body, with medium-sized drooping ears and a snout that is relatively short and straight.



5. Pietrain

 this breed is mostly spotted black and white, with medium-sized erect ears, although some individuals have slightly drooping ears, and moderately long a slightly dished snout. This breed is known for its good muscle development in the ham, loin, and shoulder with very thin backfat. The reproductive performance and mothering ability are relatively good and acceptable.







6. Hybrids

 most hybrids introduced into the country do not have distinguishing physical characteristics, which may differentiate them from other breeds. Most of these hybrids, however, are white with good muscle development. Hybrid sows are claimed to be highly prolific; have better fertility; have bigger and more uniform litter; and have heavier piglets at birth. Slaughter hybrid pigs, on the other hand, are claimed to be outstanding in terms of growth rate, fed conversion efficiency, and carcass quality.

 Some hybrid pigs available in the country are :

a. Hypor

b. New Dalland

c. Seghers

d. Camborough

e. JSR

f. Topigs



Definition of terms:



Boar – male pig of any age that is usually intended for breeding.



Colostrums – a yellowish milky fluid secreted by the mammary glands shortly before and a few days after farrowing.



Contamination – organisms is inside the pigs body without causing any clinical damage or disease.



Farrowing – act of giving birth in sows.



Gilt – young female pig less than one year of age and has not yet given birth.



Lesion – the disruptive changes in the organs/tissues of the animal when infected.



Litter – group of pigs born in one farrowing.



Litter size – the number of pigs born in one litter.



Pathogenic – the ability of the organism to cause damage or disease.



Sow – mature female pig, one that has given birth.



Suckling – young pigs, from birth up to weaning.



Terminal sire – a boar used in a crossbreeding program for the production of slaughter pigs, e.g., Duroc x Pietrain sires.



Triple cross pigs – pigs produced from the mating o a two-breed crossbred sow to a carefully terminal sire of different breed.



Weaning – the process of separating the young from its dam.



Weanling – young pig separated from the sow; about 30-90 days old.